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		<title>WEN'S Horizon - Science</title>
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			<title>WEN'S Horizon - Science</title> 
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1809.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[Review of Classical Mechanics]]></title>
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			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 04 May 2008 17:43:40 -0700</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p>A general review of classical mechanics including Hamilton&#039;s principle, Lagrange&#039;s equations, Hamilton&#039;s equations, canonical transformations, and simple harmonic oscillator. You need Adobe Flash to view this slide:</p><p>[Flash contained, <a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1809.html">read the original topic to see</a>]</p><p>Or you can <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/wensh/review-of-classical-mechanics/download" rel="external">download the PDF version here</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1527.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[E&amp;M field in microwave oven: more complicated than you think]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Mon, 02 Jul 2007 23:07:28 -0700</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p>Some web pages[1-4] are describing a method to measure speed of light using a microwave oven. They claim that by removing the turntable, hot spots can be found in the microwaved material (food). And the distance between two neighboring spots corresponds to the half wavelength of the microwave, which can be measured to be around 6cm. Then they can calculate the speed of light by using a wave formula,<br /><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/1527/eq01.gif" alt="c = f \lambda" /> ,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(1)<br />where c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength, and f is the frequency of the microwave which can be obtained in the sticker on the back of the oven and which is usually 2.45GHz.</p><p>Eq. (1) is valid for a monochromatic plain wave. For other forms of electromagnetic field (E&amp;M field), we have to be careful. Apparently, the size of the oven is at the same order (~10cm) of the &quot;wavelength&quot; of the microwave, so the oven cannot be approximated to be infinitely large and, hence, the <abbr title="electromagnetic">E&amp;M</abbr> field cannot be simply approximated to be a monochromatic plain wave. Also obviously, the oven cannot be approximated to be a pair of infinitely large walls, so the E&amp;M field cannot be approximated to be a 1D standing wave. Therefore, we have to solve the Maxwell equations to see what is actually going on in the oven. And then we can see the physical validity of this method.</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1527.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1070.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[火是什么？]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Tue, 23 May 2006 17:45:23 -0700</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p>古人认为火是一种不同于土、水、空气的第四态物质。初中的化学课又说火是现象而不是物质。近代物理认为，火确实是第四态的物质──等离子体。并且它还是复杂（尘埃）等离子体。以蜡烛燃烧为例<sup>[1]</sup>，以前认为它是由于化学反应产生的高能原子频繁碰撞激发电离（退激发的过程就发光，从而火被我们看到），从而形成等离子体（即普通的等离子体）。然而现在认为它是一种复杂等离子体：个别未燃的炭颗粒在化学反应产生的高温下，发射表面电子，这些电子碰撞其它原子发生电离，电离又产生了更多电子……。连锁反应后即产生了等离子体，那些炭颗粒即成为复杂等离子体中的尘埃。</p><p>参考文献</p><p>[1] P. K. Shukla and A. A. Mamun, <em>Introduction to Dusty Plasma Physics</em>, Institute of Physics Publishing, 2002</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1035.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 托卡马克（Tokamak）简介]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 23 Apr 2006 13:00:31 -0700</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>转载自 <a href="http://bbs.ustc.edu.cn" rel="external">瀚海星云</a> 等离子体版</strong></p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1035.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1011.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[唯物论 与 不可知论+模型论]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Thu, 06 Apr 2006 22:36:55 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1011.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>唯物论认为先有物质后有意识，物质第一性，意识第二性，世界是物质的世界，是客观的世界。所以，唯物主义的人喜欢问世界客观上是怎样的，支配世界的客观规律是什么。</p><p>不可知论认为先有物质还是先有意识，这个问题是不可知的。世界客观上是怎样的？这个问题同样不可知。支配世界的客观规律是什么？这就更不可知了，因为就连“客观规律”是否存在都是不可知的。似乎相信不可知论的人很无助，什么都不知道，什么都不可知。但是模型论告诉我们，我们并不需要去知道那些不可知的东西，我们不需要知道客观规律是否存在或者究竟是什么，我们只需要对它建立模型。相信不可知论+模型论的人喜欢问什么样的模型能够描述世界，已有的模型够不够好，是否存在更好的模型。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1011.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/789.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[ITER（国际热核实验反应堆）专题]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 15:11:33 -0800</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p>ITER全称：International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor<br />即国际热核实验反应堆</p><dl><dt>谢会乔同学的调研报告</dt><dd><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/01.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/01.jpg" /></p><ul><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/785.html">核聚变研究简史</a></p></li><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/786.html">为什么要大力开展聚变能研究</a></p></li><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/787.html">ITER与其它tokamak的参数对比及任务列表</a></p></li><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/788.html">ITER的主要部件简介</a></p></li></ul><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/41.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/41.jpg" /></p></dd><dt>相关文章</dt><dd><ul><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/1035.html">托卡马克（Tokamak）简介</a></p></li><li><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/624.html">通往太阳的道路——国际热核实验反应堆(ITER)</a></p></li></ul></dd></dl>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[ITER] ITER的主要部件简介]]></title>
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			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 15:11:12 -0800</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/20.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/20.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/21.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/21.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/22.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/22.jpg" /></p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/788.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[ITER] ITER与其它tokamak的参数对比及任务列表]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 15:10:49 -0800</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/15.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/15.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/16.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/16.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/17.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/17.jpg" /></p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/787.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[ITER] 为什么要大力开展聚变能研究]]></title>
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			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 15:07:09 -0800</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/12.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/12.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/13.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/13.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/14.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/14.jpg" /></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[ITER] 核聚变研究简史]]></title>
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			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 14:51:29 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/785.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/02.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/02.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/03.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/03.jpg" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/04.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/789/04.jpg" /></p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/785.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[氩离子激光器概述]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 06 Nov 2005 14:14:56 -0800</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>调研报告作业。报告做完，把幻灯片放上来共享。</strong></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/784/01.jpg" alt="氩离子激光器概述" /></p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/784/02.jpg" alt="激光简介" /><br />激光，又称镭射，英文叫“LASER”，是“Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”的缩写，意思是“受激发射的辐射光放大”，激光的英文全名已完全表达了制造激光的主要过程。1964年按照我国著名科学家钱学森建议将“光受激发射”改称“激光”。</p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/784/03.jpg" alt="激光产生的基本原理" /><br />上图展示了原子的三种跃迁：自发吸收、自发辐射、受激辐射。<br />产生激光的一个关键是要实现粒子数反转。下图是红宝石激光器的粒子数反转示意图。氩离子激光器的粒子数反转机理会在后面详细解释。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/784.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[Copy] From 1 billion light-years to 0.1 fermi]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Thu, 03 Nov 2005 19:41:07 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/780.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>Copied from a website that is closed now.</strong></p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/01.jpg" rel="external"><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/01p.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/01p.jpg" /></a><br /><strong>about 1 billion light-years, 10<sup>25</sup> meters<br />约10亿光年，10<sup>25</sup>米</strong></p><p>Most of space looks as empty as this, the glow of distant galaxies like dotted dust. This emptiness is normal; our own bright home-world is the exception. A tenfold larger view would show no new structure, no new void; the universe is roughly uniform at such dimensions. Novelty on so grand a scale is to be sought over time rather than from place to place. All swift change is in the past. This view will dim slowly, for a few billion years at least, as the faint clusters drift still farther apart.</p><p>大部分的（宇宙）空间就跟这幅图一般空旷，远处星系发出的光就像点点尘埃。这种空旷是正常的；我们自己的明亮世界除外。比这幅图大十倍的视图不会有新的结构，也没有新的空旷；宇宙在这个尺度上是大致均匀的。在如此大的尺度上，新奇的事物要通过历经时间来寻求，而不是从一个地方到另一个地方。所有的快速变化都在过去。至少再过数十亿年，这个视图会慢慢变得模糊，由于图上模糊的团簇会逐渐飘散（以至于变得更模糊）。</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/02.jpg" rel="external"><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/02p.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/02p.jpg" /></a><br /><strong>about 100 million light-years, 10<sup>24</sup> meters<br />约1亿光年，10<sup>24</sup>米</strong></p><p>We look toward our distant home in the Milky Way. But we see mostly one large intervening cluster of galaxies, called the Virgo Cluster. Galaxies as a rule associate into orbiting clusters and groups. There is reason to believe that our Milky Way is itself an outlier of the big Virgo Cluster, responsive to its steady gravitational pull: part of a supercluster. Out there beyond the Milky Way is a good-sized volume nearly devoid of noticeable galaxies.</p><p>朝远处我们的银河系里的家的方向看。但是我们只看到一团相互作用的星系，成为室女座星系团。星系通常围着（星系）团簇或群组而轨道绕行。有理由相信我们的银河系是大室女座星系团的外层星系，响应着一个超星系团的一部分的稳定的引力。在银河系之外相当大的空间内几乎没有明显的星系了。</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/03.jpg" rel="external"><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/03p.jpg" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/780/03p.jpg" /></a><br /><strong>about 10 million light-years, 3 megaparsecs, 10<sup>23</sup> meters<br />约1000万光年，或3兆秒差距，10<sup>23</sup>米</strong></p><p>These are the galaxies of our own cosmic region, each single bright spot made by the summed light of stars by the billion. Their mutual gravity binds stars into galaxies, every one a complex swarm of moving stars.</p><p>这些（亮点）都是在我们空间区域附近的星系，每一个亮点都是由数十亿颗恒星的光聚集而成。它们相互的引力把它们约束成星系，每一个（星系）都是一个复杂的运动恒星集团。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/780.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 通往太阳的道路——国际热核实验反应堆(ITER)]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Fri, 30 Sep 2005 14:21:16 -0700</pubDate>
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			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>转载自 <a href="http://www.oursci.org" rel="external">三思科学</a></strong></p><p>当你从东方的地平线升起<br />你将美丽普施于四方<br />你高悬于天空，光线照耀大地……<br />——埃及第十八王朝法老阿肯纳顿《太阳颂诗》（约公元前1370）</p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/624_1.jpg" alt="太阳" /></p><p>在计划提出20年之后，国际热核实验反应堆(ITER)建设地点终于确定，拟于年内开工。这是一个事关世界未来能源安全的重大国际合作项目，其意义不逊于人类基因组计划和国际空间站。　　</p><p>原子核里封锁着巨大的能量，它在瞬间释放出来时，具有一切其它武器都难以企及的毁灭性，一点点物质产生的能量就能摧毁一座城市。如果予以恰当控制和分配，同样的能量也许够给这个城市供电一整年。我们目前对前者比对后者精通得多，从人类擅长互相杀戮的历史来看，这样的黑色幽默并不稀奇。但现实不完全是黑色的，在和平利用自身力量的光明道路上，人类总算也还在缓慢前进。</p><p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/624_2.jpg" alt="ITER所在地位置，法国卡达拉舍" /><br />ITER所在地位置，法国卡达拉舍</p><p>2005年6月28日，国际热核实验反应堆的建设地点尘埃落定，工程终于将正式开始。这个项目英文名称缩写ITER，在拉丁语里是“道路”的意思。如果一切顺利，它将成为世界第一个产出能量大于输入能量的核聚变装置，为制造真正的反应堆作准备。这条通往和平利用聚变能的“道路”，将“铺设”在法国南部的卡达拉舍，这个地方属于优雅美丽的普罗旺斯。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/624.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/500.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[等离子体鞘层边缘的边界条件]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Tue, 20 Sep 2005 12:21:39 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/500.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>这个问题搞了真久，一直以为把等离子体鞘层边界处的电场E和电势phi都定为0是最理想的情况，却一旦把两者都定为0就总是出问题。开始的时候是发现电势phi向极板方向居然是递增的，显然非物理。于是找到Edelberg模型的原文（<a href="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/document/500.pdf">J. Appl. Phys. <strong>86</strong>, 4799(1999)</a>），其中说离子能加速到Bohm速度进入鞘层，至少要E<sub>0</sub>=k*T<sub>e</sub>/(2*e*lambda<sub>D</sub>)大小的电场加速一个Debye长度lambda<sub>D</sub>，于是将鞘层边界电场改为E<sub>0</sub>。</p><p>后来发现电势phi向极板递增是由于自己程序中的bug造成的，于是又返回尝试把鞘层边界电场改回0，却发现鞘层内平均离子速度出现了数值震荡。对每时刻离子速度的分析得知由于我用的模型考虑了粒子碰撞的减速，而离子进入鞘层时，加速它的电场为零，并在一定距离内电场不能增大到足够抵消碰撞的减速效应，所以离子进入鞘层后会有一段距离的减速，又是不符合物理的。</p><p>于是考虑把离子从0速度开始加速而不是Bohm速度，结果由于方程分母含有离子速度，于是出现0做除数的郁闷。</p><p>结果昨晚坐在桌子旁随便翻翻桌面上的书，是刘万东老师的《等离子体物理导论》，翻到了这样一段：</p><blockquote><p>稳定鞘层存在要求离子进入鞘层时速度大于离子声速。通常这种定向的速度不是由外界施加的，而是等离子体内部电场空间分布自洽的调整结果。也就是说，自鞘边界向等离子体内部延伸，有一个电场强度较弱的称之为预鞘的区域，在预鞘区，离子得到缓慢加速直至离子声速。实际上，鞘层和预鞘并没有严格的区别，通常将离子达到离子声速的位置确定为鞘层的边缘，同时认为在预鞘区，准中性条件仍然满足。</p></blockquote><p>终于解决了这个问题：由于有预鞘的存在，所以可以把鞘层边界电场视为不为0，用Edelberg模型中的E<sub>0</sub>即可；而由于“认为在预鞘区，准中性条件仍然满足”，所以由Poisson方程，电势phi的二阶空间导数，即电场E的一阶空间导数，为0。那么电势phi本身如何确定呢？如果把等离子体内部电势视为0，那么鞘层边界电势就应该不为0，要花点心思算算。但是由电磁学可知电势0点其实可以任意取定，而现在只考虑鞘层，所以可以直接把鞘层边界电势取为0。问题解决。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/473.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 中国农历传统节日]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 18 Sep 2005 14:19:51 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/473.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>中秋之节，上网找些相关的资料看，翻到此详细农历节日，转载收藏之。</strong></p><p><strong>转载自 中华农历网 <a href="http://www.nongli.com" rel="external">http://www.nongli.com</a></strong></p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/473.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 如何转换阴阳历]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 18 Sep 2005 13:51:50 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/472.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>转载自 <a href="http://www.chinesefortunecalendar.com" rel="external">Chinese Fortune Calendar</a></strong></p><p>很多人都一直在找换阴阳历的公式。我也尝试过在1988年到1992年之间。曾读过「高平子」天文前辈所着「学历散论」了解古历的变更和阴阳历的缺陷。才知道由於月球转动的不稳定不规则，确定无公式可寻。这也是古代中国每百年必改历的原因。</p><p>阴历最大的问题是在如何置闰。好像不难，因为阴历基本法则如下</p><ul><li><p>月朔日即是初一</p></li><li><p>月以中气得名</p></li><li><p>以包含雨水中气月为正月，即是「寅」月</p></li><li><p>月无中气者为闰月，以前月同名</p></li></ul><p>如果，日月转动循还有规则的话， 推演一套阴阳历转换的公式并不难。问题在有时一个太阴月比一个太阳月还要长。如此一个太阴月就有可能包括两个中气。此双中气月後的阴历月名就全部乱掉了，直到下一个「假」闰月後才调整过来。</p><p>一般人接触到的阴阳历是民用历法，它是政府颁令的以东经120度计算的历法或称中原标准时间或北京时。如果，我们用不同时区、不同经度为子午线来重新计算阴阳历，民用历法的置闰法则出了很大的问题。不同时区的闰月可能落在不同月。换言之，在一百年内，任何两个时区的闰月顺序模式是会不相同的。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/472.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 二十四节气]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 18 Sep 2005 13:33:17 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/471.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>转载自 中华农历网 <a href="http://www.nongli.com" rel="external">http://www.nongli.com</a></strong></p><p>二十四节气起源于黄河流域。远在春秋时代，就定出仲春、仲夏、仲秋和仲冬等四个节气。以后不断地改进与完善，到秦汉年间，二十四节气已完全确立。公元前104年，由邓平等制定的《太初历》，正式把二十四节气订于历法，明确了二十四节气的天文位置。</p><p>太阳从黄经零度起，沿黄经每运行15度所经历的时日称为“一个节气”。每年运行360度，共经历24个节气，每月2个。其中，每月第一个节气为“节气”，即：立春、惊蛰、清明、立夏、芒种、小暑、立秋、白露、寒露、立冬、大雪和小寒等12个节气；每月的第二个节气为“中气”，即：雨水、春分、谷雨、小满、夏至、大暑、处暑、秋分、霜降、小雪、冬至和大寒等12个节气。“节气” 和“中气”交替出现，各历时15天，现在人们已经把“节气”和“中气”统称为“节气”。</p><p>二十四节气反映了太阳的周年视运动，所以节气在现行的公历中日期基本固定，上半年在6日、21日，下半年在8日、23日，前后不差1～2天。</p><p>...</p><p><a href="http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/471.html">Read the whole topic</a></p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/216.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[Semimetals and Half-metals]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Tue, 31 May 2005 14:00:21 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/216.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>Abstract</strong> Semimetals and half-metals are two concepts whose translations in Chinese are similar or the same. However, these two concepts are distinct, which is explained in this text.</p><p><strong>1. Semimetals</strong><br />The definition of the "semimetal" is an element having some properties characteristic of metals and others of non-metals. Many metalloids give rise to an amphoteric oxide (e.g. arsenic or antimony) and many are semiconductors. This definition is found in an online encyclopedia, whose URL and name I have forgotten.</p><p>We can find more information about semimetals on our text book. The energy bands of semimetals shown in Figure 1 on page 174 are different from other substances in that two bands of them are narrower than those of others. Reading the text and the description under the figure, I think that the reason of drawing two narrow bands is to show that parts of these two bands share the same energy value, as shown below. Thus, even at absolute zero, one band can be almost filled and the other band can be nearly empty, as the description under Figure 1 on page 174 says.<br /><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/216_1.gif" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/216_1.gif" /><br />Consequently, at absolute zero, electrons in a semimetal have the freeness to move among those bands sharing energy values. Therefore, semimetals still have some conduction at absolute zero, while semiconductors have little and become insulators, because electrons in semiconductors, whose bands shares no energy values, have to fill the lowest energy levels(bands) and hence have little freeness at absolute zero.</p><p><strong>2. Half-metals</strong><br />A half-metal is a solid with an unusual electronic structure. For electrons of one spin it is a metal with a Fermi surface, but for the opposite spin there is a gap in the spin-polarized density of states, like a semiconductor or insulator. This definition presupposes a magnetically ordered state to define the spin quantization axis. The responses of a half-metal to electric and magnetic field at zero temperature are quite different. There is electric conductivity, but no high-field magnetic susceptibility.<sup>[2]</sup></p><p>There are three categories of half-metals: those with (1) covalent band gaps, (2) charge-transfer band gaps, and (3) d-d band gaps<sup>[3]</sup>. The origin of the covalent band gap is strongly related with semiconductors of group III-V type, for instance, GaAs. The band structure, interactions, and bonding for the semiconducting spin direction of this category are very much equivalent to that in the group III-V semiconductors. One example of this category is NiMnSb. Half metals of Category (2) are found in strongly magnetic compounds, where the d bands of the transition metal are empty for the minority spin direction and the itinerant s, p electrons of the transition metal have been localized on the anions. Thus compounds in this category are naturally strong magnets. The occurrence of the band gap for one spin direction is not very dependent on the crystal structure. An instance of Category (2) is CrO2. Half-metals in Category (3) show rather narrow bands, so that gaps occur between crystal-field split bands. The exchange splitting can be such that the Fermi level is positioned in a gap for one spin direction only. Materials of this category are weak magnets. Examples are Fe3O4, Mn2VAl.</p><p>Although the degree of spin polarization in half-metals should be 100% at absolute zero, neglecting spin-orbit interactions, the half-metallicity with a clear band gap around the Fermi energy level for the minority spin can be partly suppressed by defects, spin excitations at increased temperature, or non-quasiparticle states<sup>[4]</sup>. Even at low temperature and in the defect-free case, the spin-orbit interaction is still a question. For example, an experiment shows the value of P=85% or P=90% in (Ga, Mn)As, where P is defined by<br /><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/216_2.gif" alt="http://www.wensh.net/up/2/img/216_2.gif" />.<br />Here the subscription "↑" denotes the majority density of states, while "↓" the minority. And the theoretical calculation considering spin-orbit interaction gives the value P=91.9%, which agrees the experiment and confirms the existence of spin-orbit interaction in this half-metal.</p><p>To sum up, semimetals and half-metals are two distinct concepts, although their Chinese translations may be the same or similar. Semimetals are the materials that have two or more energy bands that have energy-value-sharing parts, which causes their conduction at absolute zero. Half-metals are the materials shows conduction by charge carriers (usually electrons) of one spin direction exclusively.</p><p><strong>References</strong><br />[1] Introduction to Solid State Physics<br />[2] J. M. D. Coey and M. Venkatesan, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 91, No. 10, 8345-8350 (2002)<br />[3] Fang, de Wijs, and de Groot, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 91, No. 10, 8340-8344 (2002)<br />[4] Ph. Mavropoulos, K. Sato, R. Zeller, and P. H. Dederichs, Physical Review B, 69, 054424 (2004)</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/176.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[[转载] 中国科学家首次证明空间量子通信可破13公里]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sat, 30 Apr 2005 16:19:15 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/176.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>http://www.sina.com.cn</p><p>　　中新网4月30日电据科技日报报道，中国科技大学合肥微尺度物质科学国家实验室潘建伟、彭承志等专家通过“自由空间纠缠光子的分发”实验，在国际上首次证明了纠缠光子在穿透等效于整个大气层厚度的地面大气后，纠缠的特性仍然能够保持，并可应用于高效、安全的量子通信。4月22日出版的国际物理学权威期刊《物理评论快报》发表了他们题为《13公里自由空间纠缠光子分发：朝向基于人造卫星的全球化量子通信》的研究论文。</p><p>　　《物理评论快报》的审稿人称，这一成果“有重大的意义”、“是一项相当了不起的成就”。</p><p>　　目前广为使用的远距离通信需要通过光纤来传输大量的光子，但是保密性能差，可以被窃听。量子保密通信技术通过单一光子或纠缠光子来传送信息，有绝对安全性。但由于光子在光纤中传输时容易被吸收而严重损耗，远距离光纤量子保密通信的难度较大，最大传输距离目前被限制在100公里左右。</p><p>　　潘建伟选定海拔281米的某山顶电视发射塔为第一个实验点，在此制备出成对的纠缠光子，再利用两个专门设计加工的发射望远镜将易发散的细小光束“增肥”后向东西相距13公里的两个实验站送出。研究人员在两个接收端用同样型号的望远镜收集。传送中，虽有许多纠缠光子衰减，但仍有相当比例的纠缠光子能存活下来，携带信息的数量和质量能完全满足基于卫星的全球化量子通信的要求。13公里不仅是目前国际上自由空间纠缠光子分发的最远距离,也是目前国际上没有窃听漏洞量子密钥分发的最大距离。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/174.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[负温度]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Thu, 28 Apr 2005 09:36:43 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/174.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>今天上热力学·统计物理课，讲到世界上还有温度为负的东西，甚是感兴趣。因为热力学第三定律说不能把温度为正的物体降温到绝对零度，绝对零度尚且达不到，更何况负温度呢？</p><p>上过课后就明白了，所谓的负温度，是能量比正温度还要高的状态。如果从冷热来说，负温度比正温度更“热”。如果正负温度的两物体热接触，热量将从负温物体传到正温物体。并且，负温度只能出现在组成宏观物体的微观粒子的能级是有限的情况。例如只考察某粒子的自旋在磁场中的能量，就是有限的能级。而平常多数系统例如原子组成的系统，由于原子能级无限（例如氢原子从基态-13.6eV到电离态0eV之间有无穷多个能级），所以不存在负温度状态。</p><p>这也解决了近日困惑我的一个问题：在热力学中，首先要有第零定律表明物体存在一个态函数，才能把此态函数定义为温度；而第零定律是实验定律；那么在一些极端的条件下，第零定律是否能通过实验证伪呢？例如不时会看到科普资料上写太阳内部温度是多少，表面温度是多少，但是在太阳的内部和表面第零定律是否成立，是否有实验证伪过呢？</p><p>今天知道了可以用另一种温度的定义，来绕开第零定律。书上有个公式：1/T=(partial(S)/partial(U))<sub>y</sub>。在统计物理中，可以用此式来定义温度，因为熵S定义为S=k*ln(W)，W为微观状态数，内能U则为各粒子所处能级的能量之和，两者都有确切的定义，所以用此式定义温度，就不需要第零定律了。</p><p>记得当年在广雅饭堂有人问是否温度真的不能降到绝对零度以下，如果降到以下会怎样，米爷（wxiew）说降到绝对零度以下会忽然变成一种极热的状态，类似太阳那样。对照上面的描述，这种答案确有一定道理 ，不过不应该说“降到绝对零度以下”。因为按照上面的描述，物体随内能的增加，温度从绝对零度的右极限逐渐增大，增大到正无穷后，忽然反转为负无穷，然后随内能增加继续增大，一直趋于绝对零度的左极限。从数值上来看，绝对零度的左右极限是相邻的，但其对应的状态却相距甚远；而正负无穷K的温度数值上相差甚大，但其对应的状态却是相邻的。</p><p>负温度看起来很玄，其实说明了人们定义了从0到正无穷的开氏温标，以为可以描述一切冷热的物体，后来才发现0到正无穷的温度还不足以描述所有的冷热状况。</p><p>其实这种问题在力学中就碰到过。芝诺（Zeno）提出过著名的阿齐尔斯（Achilles）追不上乌龟的佯谬：Achilles比乌龟跑得快10倍，但他永远抓不住乌龟。因为，假定他们开始比赛时，乌龟在Achilles前面100米，当Achilles跑了100米而到达乌龟原来所在地时，乌龟已经以他的快慢的1/10前进了10米。现在，Achilles又得跑10米以便赶上乌龟，但在跑完10米时，他发现乌龟已经在他前面10厘米。如此下去，直到无穷。</p><p>这个佯谬听起来很荒谬，其实说明了一个很值得我们注意的问题：描述的完备性。在此佯谬中，Zeno采用了一种特殊的时间度量：以某时刻为时间0点，以Achilles到达乌龟0时刻所在的地点作为1，即以此段时间作为单位时间。下文把此种时间度量称为Zeno时，把日常生活中用的时间度量称为普通时。佯谬得出的结论之所以不妥，是因为当Zeno时达到正无穷以后，普通时还有时间。也就是说，Zeno时对时间的描述不完备，Achilles追上和超过乌龟的时间在Zeno时中无法描述。</p><p>那么我们平时用的普通时对时间的描述是否完备呢？答案是否定的。在相对论中，考虑一个宇航员乘坐飞船进入黑洞的过程。黑洞表面有一视界，在视界内的东西即使达到光速也无法逃出黑洞的引力。把宇航员所用的普通时称为宇航时，地球上用的普通时仍称普通时。对宇航员来说，他穿过视界时不会有什么特别的感觉，只是他穿过了视界就再也回不来了。但在地球上看来，宇航员是在无限接近视界但永远达不到。当地球普通时趋于无穷时，宇航员也趋于视界。也就是说地球上的普通时无法描述宇航员穿过视界后的时间。</p><p>回到温度的问题上，正的开氏温度并不能描述所有的冷热状态，在开氏温度达到正无穷后还有温度。其实我们可以定义另一种温标，把开氏正无穷温度后的温度也包含在内，就像在Zeno佯谬中用普通时替代Zeno时，就可以描述Achilles追上乌龟后的时间。不过由于温度问题的特殊性，人们发现只要在开氏温度基础上补充负无穷到0的温度，就可以描述目前所知的所有温度状态，这样就不需要重新定义一种新的温标。</p><p>这样就明确了负温度的含义：它不是表示比绝对零度还低的温度，而是表示大于正无穷的温度。它纯粹是一种数学描述，虽然绝对零度的左右极限在数值上相邻，但却是完全不同的意义，所以热力学第三定律仍然成立。</p><p>后记：物理在描述自然界的时候，除了上面提到的欠完备情形，还有过完备的情形。例如在牛顿力学中，速度的描述就是过完备的，因为它可以描述大于光速的速度，但这在目前人类所知道的速度上却没有对应意义。</p><p>用物理解决问题的过程，就是对问题建立物理数学模型然后借助数学工具求解的过程。如果建立的物理数学模型对问题的描述是不完备的或过完备的，都有可能产生错误的结果，即使数学求解的过程是严密的。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/155.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[无神论 与 有神论]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Fri, 22 Apr 2005 18:48:40 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/155.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>《力学》（杨维纮 著，中国科学技术大学出版社）的绪论中有这样一段话：“假如有人宣称：在我们中间存在着一种不可探知的外来生灵，你怎么驳倒他？对这种论断，你既不能说它正确，又不能说它错误。我们只能说，因为它不能用实验来证伪，所以不是科学的论断。”</p><p>这段话读起来很自然，故本文将以此作为基本假设。在进行下一步推导前，先对这段话作简单分析。我们可以发现平常说的鬼、神、上帝、如来佛、观音等，都符合“不可探知的外来生灵”。而“在我们中间存在着一种不可探知的外来生灵”，则正是“有神论”的表述，其反面，即“在我们中间<strong>不</strong>存在着一种不可探知的外来生灵”，即为“无神论”的表述。</p><p>下面我们来推导本文的结论。既然“存在不可探知的外来生灵”，即“有神论”不能用实验证伪，自然其反面“<strong>不</strong>存在不可探知的外来生灵”，即“无神论”也不能用实验证伪。结论就是：因为“无神论”不能用实验来证伪，所以不是科学的论断。</p><p>无论“有神论”还是“无神论”，都不是科学的论断。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/142.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[永动机]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sun, 10 Apr 2005 14:42:54 -0700</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/142.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>上过高中物理的人都知道永动机是不可能造出来的，并且当被问及为什么永动机造不出来，多数都会答因为能量守恒，或曰有能量守恒定律在起作用。</p><p>听起来非常地天衣无缝和无懈可击，但在大一的力学课上被老师指出这是犯了严重的逻辑错误（GRE AW中的argument好像是称其曰logical fallacy）。</p><p>问题出在哪里？很简单，我们不妨再问深一层：为什么能量守恒？能量守恒定律是怎么来的？</p><p>这个问题的答案便是，人们从长期永动机的研制失败教训中，总结出了一条定律，叫做能量守恒定律。</p><p>此仅为印象中老师课堂上所言。为了考证，翻开大一的《力学》（杨维纮 著，中国科学技术大学出版社；觉得此书的前言和绪论非常值得一看，个人认为其对“科学”的态度比较中肯，而不像一些哲学书把“科学”、“客观真理”什么的吹得天花龙凤；虽然现在已经学物理学到大三，回过头来看此书，仍觉得有很多地方值得细细品味），其中写道：“……19世纪能量守恒定律的三个创始人之一——亥姆霍兹（1821-1894）当年却是用不可能有永动机来论证能量守恒定律的。他在《论自然力的相互作用》一文中写道：‘……鉴于前人试验的失败，人们……不再询问：我如何能够利用各种自然力之间已知和未知的关系来创造一种永恒的运动，而是问道：如果永恒的运动（指永动机）是不可能的，在各种自然力之间应该存在什么样的关系？’”<br />所以当问及为什么永动机造不出来，答案应该是因为人类作了几百年的尝试，始终没有造出来，所以我们只好承认造不出永动机。</p><p>细心的读者会发现上文的讨论忽略的一个问题：永动机的定义。这正是下文要讨论的。有些书简单把永动机定义为一种不消耗能量却可以源源不断对外做功的机器，然后就用能量守恒定律来否定它。记忆中高中的物理书就是这样。如果按这种定义，只要按照上文的理解，搞清楚永动机与能量守恒的逻辑关系，并不会产生什么大问题。只是如果光看这种书，就不知道还有一种永动机是遵守能量守恒定律的。大一上热学课，就把永动机分为两类：第一类永动机即为不消耗能量而可以不断对外做功的机器，此永动机被热力学第一定律，即能量守恒定律所否定；第二类永动机是一种能够从单一热源（例如地球大气、海洋）不断吸收热量而转化为有用功的机器，它遵守能量守恒定律，所吸收的热量等于对外做的功（不考虑耗散时），但此种永动机被热力学第二定律所否定。</p><p>其实永动机并不“永动”。纵使第一类永动机能造出来，我们确实不需要给它补充能源了，但零件总会老化，使用很长时间后还是要停下来，或维修，或丢弃。纵使第二类永动机能造出来，大气、海洋和大地的内能也是有限的，总有一天它们都被抽到绝对零度（这里忽略了热力学第三定律），第二类永动机也无用武之地了。</p><p>能够跑出一种遵守能量定律的永动机（第二类永动机），那是否还有第三类、第四类永动机呢？怎样界定永动机的范围呢？我认为，应该从人类的需求来看此问题。人类想做第一类永动机，是想人们可以不为其付出代价就能获得它的服务。想做第二类永动机，是想能轻易对其付出代价（大气、海洋所含热能之巨大和取之不竭使人们不惜此种代价）却能获得它大量的服务。人类进入资本主义社会后，这种机器的好处是显而易见的，哪个工业企业能拥有此种机器，其利润可想而知。既然遵守能量守恒的第二类永动机也列入永动机的范畴，而且永动机并不真正“永动”，那么我认为，任何低投入，高产出的机器都可以视为永动机。现在，煤、石油都是相对廉价和相对源源不绝的能源，所以工厂里烧煤烧石油的机器都可以视为永动机。按此界定，人类从没有停止对永动机的追求：原子能、太阳能都是比煤和石油更源源不绝的能源，借助这些人类可以制造核电站、太阳能电站这些更“永动”的永动机。研制了五十年尚未成功的受控核聚变，可能是比目前核电站更永动的永动机。</p><p>综上，“永动机不可能”不是什么支配自然界的基本规律，也不是什么客观真理，关键看你怎么定义永动机，还有要搞清楚永动机与能量的逻辑关系。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/126.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[[Copy] About Einstein]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sat, 02 Apr 2005 16:11:00 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/126.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>www.physics2005.org</p><p>Ask someone who the most famous physicist is and the answer will most probably be “Albert Einstein.” In 1905, Einstein wrote three papers (on light quanta, Brownian motion and the special theory of relativity), which would change the way we looked at physics. Given his iconic status in modern physics, the U.S. decided on “Einstein in the 21st Century” as its theme for the World Year of Physics 2005—the hundredth anniversary of those papers. While looking forward to physics in the 21st century, we also want to honor Einstein, the man.</p><p>We are grateful to the American Institute of Physics's Center for History of Physics for permission to use the text reproduced below. For a comprehensive look at Einstein's life, visit their online exhibit at: http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/</p><dl><dt>The Early Years</dt><dt>1879</dt><dd><p>Albert Einstein was born to a middle-class German Jewish family. His parents were concerned that he scarcely talked until the age of three, but he was not so much a backward as a quiet child. He would build tall houses of cards and hated playing soldier. At the age of twelve he was fascinated by a geometry book.</p><p>"It is almost a miracle that modern teaching methods have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiousity of inquiry; for what this delicate little plant needs more than anything, besides stimulation, is freedom."</p></dd><dt>1895</dt><dd><p>At the age of fifteen Albert quit high school disgusted by rote learning and martinet teachers, and followed his family to Italy where they had moved their failing electrotechnical business. After half a year of wandering and loafing, he attended a congenial Swiss school. The next year he entered the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. </p></dd><dt>1900</dt><dd><p>After working hard in the laboratory but skipping lectures, Einstein graduated with an unexceptional record. For two grim years he could find only odd jobs, but he finally got a post as a patent examiner. He married a former classmate.</p></dd><dt>Breakthrough to Relativity</dt><dt>1905 - Miraculous Year</dt><dd><p>Einstein wrote three fundamental papers, all in a few months. The first paper claimed that light must sometimes behave like a stream of particles with discrete energies, "quanta." The second paper offered an experimental test for the theory of heat. The third paper addressed a central puzzle for physicists of the day – the connection between electromagnetic theory and ordinary motion – and solved it using the "principle of relativity." </p><p>"I want to know how God created this world. I am not interested in this or that phenomenon, in the spectrum of this or that element. I want to know His thoughts; the rest are details."</p></dd><dt>1909</dt><dd><p>Einstein became an assistant professor at the University of Zurich, his first full-time physics job. In 1911 he moved on to the German University of Prague. He continued to publish important physics papers, and was beginning to meet fellow scientists, for example, at the exclusive Solvay Conference. The next year he returned to the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich as Professor.</p></dd><dt>World War I</dt><dt>1914</dt><dd><p>Einstein moved to Berlin, taking a research post that freed him from teaching duties. He separated from his wife and two sons. When the First World War broke out, Einstein rejected Germany's aggressive war aims, supporting the formation of a pacifist group.</p></dd><dt>1915</dt><dd><p>After a decade of thought, with entire years spent in blind alleys, Einstein completed his general theory of relativity. Overturning ancient notions of space and time, he reached a new understanding of gravity. Meanwhile he continued to sign petitions for peace. </p><p>"The years of anxious searching in the dark, with their intense longing, their alternations of confidence and exhaustion and the final emergence into the light – only those who have experienced it can understand it."</p></dd><dt>1918</dt><dd><p>As Germany collapsed, Einstein became more involved in politics and supported a new progressive party. The next year he remarried. And his general theory of relativity received stunning confirmation from British astronomers: as Einstein had predicted, gravity bends starlight. In the popular eye he became a symbol of science and of thought at its highest.</p></dd><dt>The Twenties</dt><dt>1921</dt><dd><p>Aided by his fame, Einstein championed the fledgling German republican government and other liberal causes. Partly as a result of this, he and his theory of relativity came under vicious attack from anti-Semites. He began travelling, attended an International Trade Union Congress in Amsterdam, and visited the United States to help raise funds for the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. The following year he received the Nobel Prize.</p></dd><dt>1924</dt><dd><p>Einstein contributed to the struggling new quantum theory. Meanwhile, he searched for a way to unify the theories of electromagnetism and gravity. In 1929 he announced a unified field theory, but the mathematics could not be compared with experiments; his struggle toward a useful theory had only begun. Meanwhile he argued with his colleagues, challenging their belief that quantum theory can give a complete description of phenomena.</p></dd><dt>The Thirties</dt><dt>1933</dt><dd><p>Unwilling to live in Germany under the new Nazi government, Einstein joined the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He turned away from strict pacifism, and warned world political leaders to prepare for German aggression. He also worked to rescue Jewish and other political victims of the Nazis.</p></dd><dt>1939</dt><dd><p>Einstein signed a letter that informed President F. D. Roosevelt of the possibility of nuclear bombs, warning that the Germans might try to build them. The next year Einstein became an American citizen. </p><p>"How I wish that somewhere there existed an island for those who are wise and of goodwill! In such a place even I would be an ardent patriot."</p></dd><dt>The Last Years</dt><dt>1952</dt><dd><p>Einstein was asked to become the second President of the State of Israel, but declined. He was supporting many causes, such as the United Nations and world government, nuclear disarmament, and civil liberties. </p><p>"The feeling for what ought and ought not to be grows and dies like a tree, and no fertilizer of any kind will do much good. What the individual can do is give a fine example, and have the courage to firmly uphold ethical convictions in a society of cynics. I have for a long time tried to conduct myself this way, with varying success."</p></dd><dt>1955</dt><dd><p>The search for a true unified field theory for a more profound understanding of nature continued to fill Einstein's days. While corresponding about a new anti-war project and writing a speech for Israel, he was stricken and died. </p><p>"One thing I have learned in a long life: that all our science, measured against reality, is primitive and childlike—and yet it is the most precious thing we have."</p></dd></dl><p>Text Copyright © 1996-2004 American Institute of Physics<br />http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/123.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[原来2005物理年还有专门网站]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Tue, 29 Mar 2005 22:28:29 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/123.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p><img class="embed_img" src="http://www.physics2005.org/graphics/images/WYPLOGO_4c_sm.gif" alt="http://www.physics2005.org/graphics/images/WYPLOGO_4c_sm.gif" /><a href="http://www.physics2005.org/" rel="external">http://www.physics2005.org/</a></p><p>只知道今年是物理年，想不到还有专门网站。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/120.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[[转贴] 中科大正式对外宣布找到阻断艾滋病毒新途径]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Tue, 29 Mar 2005 20:38:45 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/120.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>http://www.sina.com.cn 2005年03月27日04:21 北京青年报</p><p>　　新华社电　中国科技大学25日正式对外宣布，学校研究人员通过与国外机构的合作，已经成功找到阻断艾滋病病毒复制的新途径，为无抗药性艾滋病药物的研制提供了新的手段。这一成果已在国际权威学术刊物上发表。</p><p>　　据中国科大化学院有机材料研究室汪志勇教授介绍，由于艾滋病毒具有快速变异的特性，使得目前社会上普遍采用的两类药物极易使之产生耐药性。同时，这两类药物具有的毒副作用和高昂的费用，让很多艾滋病患者望而却步。</p><p>　　中国科大与其合作者的工作就是寻找抵抗人类免疫缺陷病毒的新“靶点”。汪志勇教授说，最近的药学基础研究发现，艾滋病病毒要在人体内“蔓延”，必须要附着在正常的人体细胞上，然后想办法“钻进去”，进而完成复制。这是一个非常关键的过程。他说：“我们的思路就是找到一种东西，先把那个病毒附着的位置占住，这样它就没‘门’可入了，自然也不能在人体内发生作用。”</p><p>　　汪志勇教授表示，研究正在深入进行过程中，争取在3至5年内完成基础性研究，然后进入临床阶段。</p>]]></description>
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			<link>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/24.html</link>
			<title><![CDATA[Einstein的小板凳？]]></title>
			<!-- BEGIN sPostAuthor --><author>wen@wensh.net</author><!-- END sPostAuthor -->
			<category>Science</category>
			<pubDate>Sat, 26 Feb 2005 13:07:53 -0800</pubDate>
			<guid>http://www.wensh.net/archive.php/topic/24.html</guid>
			<description><![CDATA[<p>A. Einstein，大牛理论物理学家一个，上世纪头搞出相对论，对量子力学发展有重大贡献，晚年跟Bohr吵架吵了30年。名义上因解释光电效应获1921诺贝尔物理奖，实际上提出相对论的影响不亚于提出光量子解释光电效应。</p><p>记不清是小学的思想品德课还是语文课学的，Einstein上小学时，有一次手工课每人要交一个自制的小板凳，当Einstein交出他的小板凳时，老师说这是世界上最糟糕的板凳（徐广华？），而Einstein拿出另外两个，说是他第一次和第二次做的，交的第三个虽然仍然很糟糕，但已经比前两个好得多。</p><p>中小学的老师们、中小学生的作文，常以此作为“努力比天赋重要”的论据。如果Einstein后来成了大牛工程师或发明家，那么这个例子确实是很有说服力的。但是非常可惜，他后来是大牛理论物理学家。所谓理论物理，就是用数学工具解决物理问题的学科，所谓理论物理学家，简而言之，就是不用做实验，只要会算（包括分析、解释别人做的实验，提出新的物理理论等）的人。例如J.C. Maxwell（max，最大的；well，好；最大的好），他并没有做什么很牛的电磁学实验，不过他分析了前人所做的一系列电磁实验和结果，经过他超牛的脑袋运算，提出了作为电动力学基本假设的Maxwell Equations。</p><p>于是，Einstein的小板凳例子不仅没有支撑“努力比天赋重要”的论点（没有证据表明Einstein成名后做小板凳很厉害，他可能跟小时候做的一样糟糕），甚至削弱了此论点，因为该例子支撑了另一个论点：激发潜能比努力更重要，Einstein的潜能在理而不在工，他做第三次小板凳，仍然没有别人做得好，努力没有弥补他此方面的不足，但他做的理论物理工作，是多少理论物理学家做两辈子也比不上的。</p>]]></description>
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